In a study by Abosourie (1994), conducted among university students, a
significant negative correlation was found between self esteem and academic
stress, which insinuates that students with
higher self esteem have lower levels of academic stress than those with higher
ones. It therefore, appears that self esteem is a mediating influence on
academic stress although a casual relationship has been almost impossible to
identify (Zuckerman, 1989). Additionally, Abouserie (1994) also found that
academic stress levels in females are much higher than males, which seem to
suggest that female students are more prone to stress overall than their male
counterparts. These findings were consistent with the findings of Clark et al.,
(1986) and Mallinckrodt, Leong & Kraji (1989) who conducted similar studies
among medical students.
These
findings, however, have to be viewed sceptically because there is a lack of
consensus on how self esteem should be conceived (Tafarodi & Milne, 2002).
This problem has been well documented by researchers (eg. Blascovick &
Tomanka, 1991; Crandall, 1973; Shavelson, Hubner & Stanton, 1976; Wells
& Marwell, 1976). Nonetheless, Dewey (1939) suggested the self can be
viewed and understood according to the axiological distinction between
intrinsic and instrumental value. When applied to individuals, the distinction
between these values is reflected in personal competence on one hand and
characterological worth on the other, which implies that individuals take on
value both by what they can do and what they are (Tafarodi et al., 2002).
Informally, this perspective can be expressed as the difference between respect
and liking but this does not imply mutual exclusiveness. As a result, several
researchers have set a precedent for examining self esteem as a concept that is
based on the duality of ability and worth (eg. Brissett, 1972; Brown, 1998;
Diggory, 1966; Gecas, 1971; Silverberg, 1952; White, 1963). Tafarodi &
Swann (1995) have formalized the distinctiveness of this duality by proposing
that self esteem is composed of the interdependent facets of self competence
and self liking. Consequently, this identifies our existential duality as both
autonomous agents and social beings (Bakan, 1966; Guisinger & Blatt, 1994).
To
date, the most influential account of self esteem has been offered by Morris
Rosenberg, who argued for a single unitary conception for self esteem. To
support this argument he proposed that self esteem was simply the feeling that
an individual is good enough (Rosenberg, 1965, 1979). Using this
conceptualization, Ornstein (1981) proposed that self esteem was the evaluative
dimension of the self and is a conscious experience which is accessible to
introspection and description. This may also involve unconscious processes
which may reflect an individual’s inner psychic structure. Intense feelings are
related to self judgements in a complex manner and individuals who have high
self esteem are likely to feel enthusiastic and effective. On the other hand,
individuals with negative self esteem feel shameful, unworthy and helpless
(Ornstein, 1981). Consequently, high self esteem is recognized as being an
integral part of both personal well being and as a prerequisite for educational
achievement (White, 1987).
When
Rosenberg’s unitary concept of self esteem is applied to adolescents, it has
been found that they tend to be highly introspective and self conscious and
their thoughts usually centre on their fears, desires, beliefs, attitudes and
expectations, hence, their self esteem varies considerably (Owen, Snyder &
Goodman, 2001). Consequently, self esteem is indicated in academic achievement
process and variations are closely related to the learning process. Some
students are motivated to overcome a sense of failure individually and struggle
to establish and maintain a sense of worth in societies that values competency
and doing well (Owen et al., 2001). With this in mind, Apter (1997) proposed
that children’s self esteem was a complex set of feelings, beliefs and
expectations based on changing skills and interactions with the environment and
changing world. As such, McFarland
(1984) is adamant that self esteem is a choice. To this end he argues that we
are all born as worthy and important human beings and it is our relationship
with ourselves that determines the quality of our self esteem, hence, self
esteem can be seen as a personal construct. However, it must be noted that
having high self esteem doesn’t mean that you always feel wonderful, instead
people with high self esteem accept
feelings such as being scared and lonely and know that they will be all right
in the long run (McFarland, 1989).
Many
times the experiences which encourage self esteem are school related and self
esteem is recognized as the key to children’s successful development. One such
example is working in groups. Groups provide an opportunity for students to
build their self esteem and a sense of belonging (Clemes & Bean, 1990).
Poor self esteem has been traced to underachievement at school or at work
(Branden, 1983). Many adolescents feel discouraged when they are introduced to
the requirements of school and the difficulties of tests and the actuality is
that many are very anxious about school and grades (Apter, 1997). In describing
self esteem in school settings, Apter (1997) proposes that self esteem is a set
of skills that allows students to keep trying, to keep learning and to keep
caring and when these competencies have been developed, they allow one to keep
bouncing back despite failure.
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